Education and Socioeconomic Status

Any formal education—primary or secondary—reduced the odds of never having been tested for HIV compared with women with no formal education. Middle-wealth women had 30% lower odds of never being tested for HIV compared with poor women. Secondary education was associated with 28% lower odds of never having been tested (OR = 0.72), slightly more protective than primary education (OR = 0.76). Women in female-headed households had 18% lower odds of never being tested than those in male-headed households, possibly due to greater healthcare decision-making agency. Formal education is thought to increase HIV testing by expanding exposure to health information through media and internet and by facilitating health-seeking social networks.