Gender

Women caregivers generally report worse emotional, physical, and burden outcomes than men. Caregiving is shaped by gendered social norms and has historically been constructed as a feminine responsibility. The article links the observed gender difference to gender socialisation rather than inherent biological vulnerability. The share of men providing care rises among older people, likely because men live longer and increasingly become spousal caregivers. Male adolescents may under-report depressive symptoms because masculine norms discourage emotional expression and help-seeking. Rural young women may face pressures related to femininity, family honour, domestic responsibility, and social conformity. Both high-risk clusters were female-dominated or female-only. Male adolescents should not be assumed psychologically resilient solely because measured depression associations were non-significant. Older men may underreport caregiving burden or distress.