Kidney Stones

Drinking at least 2.5 liters of water daily prevents urine supersaturation that leads to stone formation. Most kidney stones are calcium oxalate stones. Stone formation is influenced by urinary chemistry, anatomy, metabolism, urinary flow, and crystallisation-promoting conditions. Magnesium glycinate binds oxalates in the gut and reduces their absorption. Lemon juice provides citric acid that binds oxalates in urine and prevents crystallization. Common symptoms include flank pain, haematuria, nausea, and vomiting, although presentation varies by stone characteristics. Many patients with urolithiasis remain lifelong stone formers and need sustained follow-up. Urinary calculi are common, increasingly prevalent, and have high recurrence.