Malaysian Public Hospital System

State hospitals contributed the largest share of study records at 37.0%, while non-specialist hospitals contributed the fewest at 11.8%. There is no dedicated ED coder role in Malaysian hospitals, and frontline staff have limited familiarity with ICD-10, which introduces coding inconsistencies. Malaysia operates a dual public–private healthcare structure in which the public sector, managed by the Ministry of Health, delivers affordable care to the majority of the population. Hospitals from Sabah and Sarawak were deliberately included in the study to ensure geographical diversity across Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia. Malaysian public hospitals are stratified into state hospitals, major specialist hospitals, minor specialist hospitals, and non-specialist hospitals, each differing in capacity and patient demographics.