Service Provision Assessment Surveys

MUAC tape data were not collected in Afghanistan and Tanzania, requiring two separate analytical models. The cross-sectional design of SPA surveys prevents causal inference between facility characteristics and readiness outcomes. Differing survey years across countries (2015–2022) may introduce temporal heterogeneity that limits comparability. SPA surveys are nationally representative assessments of healthcare availability and quality, developed in collaboration with WHO, UNICEF, and national Ministries of Health. The study included only open, fully interviewed facilities, yielding a final weighted sample of 6,595 health facilities across six countries.