Sex Bias in Medicine

Differences in biology, disease risk, symptoms, and treatment response can vary across sex and racial or ethnic groups. Findings from white male study populations were often generalized too broadly, leaving women and non-white populations underrepresented. Historical gender bias in medicine is described as a major barrier to understanding sex differences in Alzheimer’s disease. Many older studies were conducted largely on white male participants. Medical research, training, and clinical guidelines have historically been developed based on predominantly male patient populations, creating a structural sex bias that may contribute to underdiagnosis of female patients. Universal healthcare coverage through mandatory health insurance removes access-related disparities that may amplify physician-level sex effects in systems with differential access. Administrative binary sex classifications used in this study exclude non-binary and transgender individuals, estimated at approximately 6% of the Swiss population. Female patients face a dual burden of reduced access to guideline-recommended procedures alongside higher exposure to unnecessary treatments. The study supports embedding sex-sens…